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HYLAND IT; and they inflict reputational damage and make a political point, cause dismay and confusion and attract media attention. e risks of developing and deploying such low-impact weapons are strictly limited: the risk of the attacks being attributed to the originator in international fora is low, as attribution can often require sensitive techniques that a government may not wish to expose widely; concepts of deterrence in cyberspace are currently under-developed and are not backed by international consensus, and there are at present no internationally agreed control regimes governing the use of such cyber-weapons, nor any viable means of establishing a verification system. As such, the development and deployment of such low-end cyber-weapons can carry very little risk, and considerable attraction, to some governments. An additional risk, however, is that all too often those who deploy these weapons do not fully understand them and the collateral damage they can cause. Furthermore, there are risks both that the untrammeled development and deployment of low-impact cyber-weapons make the development and deployment of cyber-weapons of strategic effect far more likely, and that the emerging free-for-all use of low-impact cyber-weapons could potentially corrode wider international relations. ere is an area of international affairs that goes beyond traditional diplomacy but stops short of actual war. Historically, in the Cold War, this was the arena of covert action, espionage and intelligence-gathering, both human and electronic. ough not formally regulated, there were clear informal understandings about what was and was not acceptable behavior. Now this environment is increasingly becoming the domain of cyber-attacks, without any formal or informal regulation, and there is the real risk that provocative cyber-attacks may destabilize international affairs in an alarming manner.